Oxidation resistant ferritic stainless steels

ABSTRACT

A method for making a ferritic stainless steel article having an oxidation resistant surface includes providing a ferritic stainless steel comprising aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than 0.02 weight percent. At least one surface of the ferritic stainless steel is modified so that, when subjected to an oxidizing atmosphere at high temperature, the modified surface develops an electrically conductive, aluminum-rich, oxidation resistant oxide scale comprising chromium and iron and a having a hematite structure differing from Fe 2 O 3 , alpha Cr 2 O 3  and alpha Al2O3. The modified surface may be provided, for example, by electrochemically modifying the surface, such as by electropolishing the surface.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This patent application is a divisional application, and claims thebenefit of the filing date under 35 U.S.C. §§120 and 121, of U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/654,203, filed on Sep. 3, 2003. U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 10/654,203 is incorporated by reference herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present disclosure relates to methods of making ferritic stainlesssteels having at least one oxidation resistant surface. The presentdisclosure also relates to ferritic stainless steels including at leastone oxidation resistant surface, and further relates to articles ofmanufacture formed of or including such ferritic stainless steels.

2. Description of the Invention Background

Fuel cells are energy conversion devices that generate electricity andheat by electrochemically combining a gaseous fuel and an oxidizing gasvia an ion-conducting electrolyte. A primary feature of fuel cells isthe ability to convert chemical energy directly into electrical energyin the absence of combustion, which provides significantly higherconversion efficiencies than reciprocating engines, gas turbines andother conventional thermomechanical methods of producing energy. For thesame power output, fuel cells produce substantially less carbon dioxideemissions than technologies based on fossil fuels. Fuel cells alsoproduce negligible amounts of SO_(X) and NO_(x), which are the mainconstituents of acid rain and photochemical smog.

Several types of fuel cells are currently being developed. A primarydifference between these fuel cell types is the material utilized as theelectrolyte, which effects operating temperature. NASA developedalkaline fuel cells including a liquid electrolyte in the 1960's topower Apollo and other spacecraft, and NASA currently uses greatlyimproved versions on the Space Shuttle. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs),in contrast, are constructed entirely of solid-state materials, using afast oxygen ion-conducting ceramic (typically yttria-stabilized zirconiaor “YSZ”) as the electrolyte, and operate in a temperature range ofabout 500° C. (932° F.) to 1000° C. (1832° F.) to facilitate solid-statetransport. Advantages of SOFCs relative to other fuel cell types includehigh energy efficiency and few problems with electrolyte management(liquid electrolytes are typically corrosive and may be difficult tohandle). SOFCs also produce high-grade waste heat, which can be used incombined heat and power devices, and internal reforming of hydrocarbonfuels (to produce hydrogen and methane) is possible.

An organization promoting development of SOFCs in the United States isthe Solid State Energy Conversion Alliance (SECA). SECA consists of anIndustry Group, which is focused on building integrated SOFCs usingtechnologies developed by the SECA member companies, and a CoreTechnology Group, which carries out fundamental research driven by theneeds of the Industry Group as a whole. The SECA program, which wasorganized and is overseen by the United States Department of Energy'sOffice of Fossil Energy, has set certain cost and performance goals forSOFCs under development.

A single SOFC “cell” or subunit includes an anode and a cathode, whichare separated by the electrolyte. Because current generation SOFCsoperate at temperatures up to about 1000° C. (about 1832° F.), theelectrodes are generally constructed from ceramic materials to avoidenvironmental degradation. Both the anode and cathode layers areintentionally permeable to gases via the establishment of a network ofinterconnected porosity and are good electrical conductors (e.g., theyexhibit essentially no ionic conductivity). In current generation SOFCs,the anode is typically formed from an electrically conductive nickel/YSZcomposite (a ceramic/metal composite or “cermet”). The nickel provides acontinuous electrically conductive path, while the YSZ serves to reducethe coefficient of thermal expansion of the overall composite andprevents the porosity from sintering shut. The nickel particles areprotected from oxidation by the hydrogen-rich gas present at the anode,which is reducing to pure nickel. The cathode may be based on, forexample, lanthanum manganate (LaMnO₃), typically doped with strontium(replacing some of the lanthanum to yield La_(1-x)Sr_(x)MnO₃) to improveits electrical conductivity. The electrolyte is typically a thin(relative to the anode and cathode) layer of fully dense YSZ.

During operation of the SOFC cell, an oxidant (such as O₂ or air) is fedinto the fuel cell on the cathode side, where it supplies oxygen ions tothe electrolyte by accepting electrons from an external circuit by thefollowing half-cell reaction: ½O_(2(g))+2e⁻=O⁻² The oxygen atoms passthrough the YSZ electrolyte via solid state diffusion to theelectrolyte/anode interface. The SOFC can employ hydrogen (H₂) and/orcarbon monoxide (CO) as a basic fuel. Operationally, pure hydrogen canbe used as supplied, while a hydrocarbon fuel such as methane, kerosene,or gasoline must be partially combusted, or reformed, to hydrogen andcarbon monoxide. This is typically accomplished internally within thefuel cell, aided by the high operating temperature and by steaminjection. The fuel gas mixture penetrates the anode to theanode/electrolyte interface, where it reacts with the oxygen ions fromthe ion-conducting electrolyte in the following two half-cell reactions:H_(2(g))+O⁻²=2e⁻+H₂O_((g)) CO_((g))+O⁻²=2e⁻+CO_(2(g)) This releaseselectrons, which re-enter the external circuit. The flow of electricalcharge due to oxygen ion transport through the electrolyte from cathodeto anode is balanced exactly by the flow of electrical charge due toelectron conduction in the external circuit. The driving force is theneed to maintain overall electrical charge balance. The flow ofelectrons in the external circuit provides useful power at a potentialof approximately one volt.

To generate a reasonable voltage, fuel cells are not operated as singleunits but, instead, as “stacks” composed of a series arrangement ofseveral individual cells with an “interconnect” joining and conductingcurrent between the anode and cathode of immediately adjacent cells. Acommon stack design is the flat-plate or “planar” SOFC (PSOFC), which isshown in a schematic form in FIG. 1. In the PSOFC 10 of FIG. 1, a singleenergy conversion cell 12 includes cathode 20 and anode 30 separated byelectrolyte 40. Interconnect 50 separates anode 30 from cathode 60 of animmediately adjacent energy conversion cell 14 (not fully shown) withinthe stack. PSOFC 10 includes a repeating arrangement of cells identicalto cell 12, with an interconnect disposed between each adjacent unit.

The design of a SOFC interconnect is critical because the interconnectserves several functions, including separating and containing thereactant gases and providing a low resistance path for current so as toelectrically connect the cells in series. In general, the interconnectmaterial must withstand the harsh high-temperature environmentalconditions within the cells; must be suitably electrically conductive(including any oxides or other surface film or scale corrosion thatforms on the material); and must have a coefficient of thermal expansion(CTE) that is sufficiently similar to the CTE of the ceramic electrodeswithin the cells to ensure the requisite structural integrity andgas-tightness of the fuel cell stack.

Initial PSOFC designs used a doped lanthanum chromate (LaCrO₃) ceramicmaterial as the interconnect material. LaCrO₃ ceramic does not degradeat the high temperatures at which SOFCs operate and has a coefficient ofthermal expansion that substantially matches the other ceramiccomponents of the fuel cell. LaCrO₃ ceramic, however, is brittle,difficult to fabricate, and extremely expensive. To address thesedeficiencies, metallic interconnects have been proposed for use inPSOFCs. These include interconnects formed from nickel-base alloys, suchas AL 600™ alloy, and certain austenitic stainless steels, such as the300 series family, the prototype of which is Type 304 alloy. Ferriticstainless steels, such as ALFA-II™ alloy, E-BRITE® alloy and AL 453™alloy also have been proposed for use in PSOFC interconnects. Table 1provides nominal compositions for the foregoing nickel-base andstainless steel alloys, all of which are available from Allegheny LudlumCorporation, Pittsburgh, Pa.

TABLE 1 Composition (weight percent) Alloy Ni Cr Fe Al Si Mn Other AL453 ™ 0.3 max. 22 bal. 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.06 alloy Ce + La max. E-BRITE ®0.15 max.  26 bal. 0.1 0.2 0.05 1 Mo alloy ALFA-II ™ 0.3 max. 13 bal. 30.3 0.4 0.4 Ti alloy AL 600 ™ bal. 15.5 8 — 0.2 0.25 — alloy Type 304 818 bal. — — — — alloy

Ferritic stainless steels have certain properties that make themattractive for PSOFC interconnect applications, including low cost, goodfabricability, and CTE compatible with ceramic. Metallic interconnects,however, generally tend to form a surface oxide layer with lowelectrical conductivity at the high temperatures typical of PSOFCoperation. This layer grows thicker with time and increases theresistivity of the interconnects and of the PSOFC stack as a whole.Certain alloys, upon exposure to oxygen at high temperatures, formsurface oxides that thicken at an extremely slow rate (for example, theAl₂O₃ scale of ALFA-II® alloy) or are highly electrically conductive(for example, the NiO scale of pure or dispersion-strengthened nickel).However, the underlying mechanism that controls these two seeminglydisparate factors (resistivity and rate of oxide formation) isessentially the same (the electronic defect structure of the oxide),resulting in very few oxides that are both slow growing and electricallyconductive.

Ferritic stainless steels have attracted interest as interconnectmaterial in part because in their conventional form they develop a scaleconsisting primarily of chromium oxide (Cr₂O₃), which is both relativelyslow-growing and electrically conductive at high temperatures.Heat-resistant alloys that rely on oxidation of chromium may offer acompromise between relatively slow oxide scale growth and appreciableelectrical conductivity at high temperature. Nevertheless, the rate ofoxidative degradation of commercially available chromia-forming ferriticstainless steels would result in degradation of fuel stack performanceover time. Alternative, non-metallic materials from which interconnectsmay be constructed, particularly perovskite ceramics (such as LaCrO₃),do not exhibit similar levels of degradation, but increase the cost ofthe PSOFC stack to uneconomical levels.

Accordingly, there is a need for novel fuel cell interconnect materialthat is both economical and exhibits a suitable level of oxidationresistance when subjected to PSOFC operating conditions over time. Moregenerally, there is a need for a ferritic stainless steel havingimproved oxidation resistance when exposed at high temperatures to anoxidizing environment.

SUMMARY

In order to address the above-described needs, the present disclosureprovides a method for making a ferritic stainless steel article havingan oxidation resistant surface. The method includes providing a ferriticstainless steel comprising aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight ofrare earth metals is greater than 0.02 weight percent. At least onesurface of the ferritic stainless steel is modified so that, whensubjected to an oxidizing atmosphere at high temperature, the modifiedsurface develops an electrically conductive, aluminum-rich, oxidationresistant oxide scale comprising chromium and iron and a having ahematite structure differing from the hematite structure of Fe₂O₃, alphaCr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. In certain embodiments of the method, the latticeparameters a_(o) and c_(o) of the aluminum-rich, oxidation resistantoxide scale differ from those of Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃.Also, in certain embodiments of the method, the modified surface of theferritic stainless steel is modified electrochemically, such as, forexample, by electropolishing the surface.

The present disclosure also is directed to a ferritic stainless steelincluding aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and 16 to less than 30weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight of rare earth metalsis greater than 0.02 weight percent. At least one surface of theferritic stainless steel is modified so that the modified surfacedevelops an aluminum-rich oxide scale when heated in an oxidizingatmosphere for 100 hours or more at a temperature in the range of 750°C. (1382° F.) to 850° C. (1562° F.), wherein the oxide scale includesiron and chromium and has a hematite structure, a_(o) in the range ofabout 4.95 to about 5.04 Å and c_(o) in the range of about 13.58 toabout 13.75 Å.

The present disclosure is further directed to a method for making aferritic stainless steel article having an oxidation resistant surface,and wherein the steel includes aluminum, at least one rare earth metaland 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, the total weight of rareearth metals being greater than 0.02 weight percent. The oxidationresistant surface of the ferritic stainless steel is provided byelectrochemically modifying the surface, such as, for example, byelectropolishing the surface. In one embodiment of the method, theelectrochemically modified surface develops an aluminum-rich oxide scaleincluding iron and chromium and having a hematite structure, a_(o) inthe range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o) in the range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å,when heated in an oxidizing atmosphere for 100 hours or more at atemperature in the range of 750° C. (1382° F.) to 850° C. (1562° C.).Also, in certain embodiments of the method, the article is one of aplate, a sheet, a strip, a foil, a bar, a fuel cell interconnect, ahigh-temperature manufacturing apparatus, a high-temperature handlingapparatus, a calcining apparatus, a glass making apparatus, a glasshandling apparatus, and a heat exchanger component. An example ofelectropolishing a surface of the ferritic stainless steel includesplacing the surface of the article in a bath containing anelectropolishing solution and a cathode, and passing current between thesteel and the cathode so that material is removed from the surface,thereby reducing surface roughness. An electropolished surface, forexample, has been found to exhibit significantly improved resistance tooxidation when subjected to a temperature and an atmospherecharacteristic of operating conditions within a solid oxide fuel cell.

Yet another aspect of the present disclosure is directed to a method ofimproving high temperature oxidation resistance of a ferritic stainlesssteel article comprising 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, atleast 0.2 weight percent aluminum, and at least one rare earth metal,wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than 0.02 up to1.0 weight percent. The method includes modifying a surface of thearticle, such as, for example, by electrochemically modifying thesurface. One example of an electrochemically modified is anelectropolished surface. The modified surface develops an aluminum-richoxide layer having a hematite structure when subjected to an atmosphereand temperature characteristic of conditions to which a solid oxide fuelcell interconnect is subjected during fuel cell operation.

An additional aspect of the present invention is directed to a method ofmaking an SOFC. The method includes providing at least one SOFCinterconnect including a ferritic stainless steel including aluminum, atleast one rare earth metal and 16 to less than 30 weight percentchromium, wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than0.02 weight percent. The interconnect includes at least one modifiedsurface that, when subjected to an oxidizing atmosphere at hightemperature, develops an electrically conductive, aluminum-rich,oxidation resistant oxide scale comprising chromium and iron and ahaving a hematite structure the modified surface develops anelectrically conductive, aluminum-rich, oxidation resistant oxide scalecomprising chromium and iron and a having a hematite structure differingfrom the hematite structure of Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. Incertain embodiments of the method, the lattice parameters a_(o) andc_(o) of the aluminum-rich, oxidation resistant oxide scale differ fromthose of Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. The interconnect andadditional components including at least one anode, at least onecathode, and at least one electrolyte, are assembled to provide theSOFC.

A further aspect of the present disclosure is directed to a method ofmaking a solid oxide fuel cell wherein at least one interconnect isprovided including a ferritic stainless steel comprising aluminum, atleast one rare earth metal and 16 to less than 30 weight percentchromium, wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than0.02 weight percent. The interconnect includes at least oneelectrochemically modified surface. The surface may be electrochemicallymodified by, for example, electropolishing the surface. The interconnectand additional components comprising at least one anode, at least onecathode, and at least one electrolyte are assembled to provide the fuelcell. In one embodiment of the method, an electropolished surfacedevelops an aluminum-rich oxide scale including iron and chromium andhaving a hematite structure, a_(o) in the range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å andc_(o) in the range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å, when heated in an oxidizingatmosphere for 100 hours or more at a temperature in the range of 750°C. (1382° F.) to 850° C. (1562° F.).

The present disclosure also is directed to a ferritic stainless steelincluding aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and 16 to less than 30weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight of rare earth metalsis greater than 0.02 weight percent. The ferritic stainless steelfurther includes at least one modified surface that, when subjected toan oxidizing atmosphere at high temperature, develops an electricallyconductive, aluminum-rich, oxidation resistant oxide scale comprisingchromium and iron and a having a hematite structure the modified havinga hematite structure differing from the hematite structure of Fe₂O₃,alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. In certain embodiments, the latticeparameters a_(o) and c_(o) of the aluminum-rich, oxidation resistantoxide scale differ from those of Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃.Also, in certain embodiments the oxide scale is characterized by a_(o)in the range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o) in the range of 13.58 to 13.75Å. Also, in certain embodiments, the modified surface of the ferriticstainless steel is an electrochemically modified surface, such as anelectropolished surface.

Yet another aspect of the present disclosure is directed to a ferriticstainless steel comprising aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight ofrare earth metals is greater than 0.02 weight percent, and wherein theferritic stainless steel further comprises at least oneelectrochemically modified surface. In certain embodiments, the at leastone electrochemically modified surface is an electropolished surface,and wherein the at least one electropolished surface develops analuminum-rich oxide scale including iron and chromium and having ahematite structure, a_(o) in the range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o) inthe range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å when heated for 100 hours or more at 750°C. (1382° F.) to 850° C. (1562° F.) in an oxidizing atmosphere. Asfurther described here, in certain embodiments of the ferritic stainlesssteel, the at least one electrochemically modified surface is at leastone electropolished surface exhibiting improved resistance to oxidationwhen subjected to atmosphere and temperature conditions characteristicof the operating conditions in a solid oxide fuel cell.

An additional aspect of the present disclosure provides a ferriticstainless steel comprising 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium,at least 0.2 weight percent aluminum, and at least one rare earth metal,wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than 0.02 up to1.0 weight percent. The ferritic stainless steel further includes atleast one oxidation resistant modified surface that develops analuminum-rich oxide layer when heated in air at a temperature in therange of 750° C. to 850° C. In certain embodiments, the modified surfaceis an electrochemically modified surface such as, for example, andelectropolished surface.

The present disclosure also discloses an article of manufactureincluding a ferritic stainless steel comprising aluminum, at least onerare earth metal and 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, whereinthe total weight of rare earth metals is greater than 0.02 weightpercent. The ferritic stainless steel further has at least one modifiedsurface, which may be, for example, an electrochemically modifiedsurface. When subjected to an oxidizing atmosphere at high temperature,the modified surface develops an electrically conductive, aluminum-rich,oxidation resistant oxide scale comprising chromium and iron and ahaving a hematite structure differing from Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alphaAl₂O₃. In certain embodiments, the modified surface is anelectropolished surface.

The present disclosure also provides for an article of manufactureincluding a ferritic stainless steel comprising aluminum, at least onerare earth metal and 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, whereinthe total weight of rare earth metals is greater than 0.02 weightpercent. The ferritic stainless steel includes at least one modifiedsurface such as, for example, an electrochemically modified surface. Theat least one electrochemically modified surface may be, for example, atleast one electropolished surface. In certain embodiments, the articleof manufacture is selected from a fuel cell, a solid oxide fuel cell, aplanar solid oxide fuel cell, a fuel cell interconnect, ahigh-temperature manufacturing apparatus, a high-temperature handlingapparatus, a calcining apparatus, a glass making apparatus, a glasshandling apparatus and a heat exchanger component.

Additional aspects of the present disclosure describe a fuel cellincluding an anode, a cathode, a solid electrolyte intermediate theanode and the cathode and an interconnect. The interconnect includes aferritic stainless steel comprising 16 to less than 30 weight percentchromium, at least 0.2 weight percent aluminum, and at least one rareearth metal, wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greaterthan 0.02 up to 1.0 weight percent. The ferritic stainless steel furtherincludes at least one modified surface that, when subjected to anoxidizing atmosphere at high temperature, develops an electricallyconductive, aluminum-rich, oxidation resistant oxide scale comprisingchromium and iron and a having a hematite structure differing from thehematite structure of Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. In certainembodiments of the fuel cell, the lattice parameters a_(o) and c_(o) ofthe aluminum-rich, oxidation resistant oxide scale differ from those ofFe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. Also, in certain embodiments of thefuel cell, the at least one modified surface of the ferritic stainlesssteel is an electrochemically modified surface such as, for example, anelectropolished surface.

A further aspect of the present disclosure provides for a fuel cellincluding an anode, a cathode, a solid electrolyte intermediate theanode and the cathode and an interconnect comprising a ferriticstainless steel including aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and 16to less than 30 weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight ofrare earth metals is greater than 0.02 weight percent. The ferriticstainless steel includes at least one electrochemically modified surfacesuch as, for example, an electropolished surface. In one embodiment, anelectropolished surface of the ferritic stainless steel develops analuminum-rich oxide scale including iron and chromium and having ahematite structure, a_(o) in the range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o) inthe range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å when heated for 100 hours or more at 750°C. (1382° C.) to 850° C. (1562° F.) in an oxidizing atmosphere. The fuelcell, in certain embodiments, may be selected from a solid oxide fuelcell and a planar solid oxide fuel cell. Also, in certain embodimentsthe fuel cell is a part of a fuel cell stack including a plurality ofcells, each cell comprising an anode, a cathode, an electrolyte and aninterconnect, wherein the interconnects electrically connects theplurality of cells in series.

The novel methods, materials and articles described in the presentdisclosure are directed to or include ferritic stainless steels that areboth economical relative to certain conventional alternative materialsand exhibit a suitable level of oxidation resistance when subjected overtime to the high temperature conditions characteristic of, for example,the internal operating conditions of a PSOFC. As such, the methods,materials and articles described herein are believed to be particularlysuited for application in the manufacture of PSOFCs and other fuelcells. More generally, the novel methods, materials and articlesdescribed in the present disclosure provide ferritic stainless steelsthat exhibit improved oxidation resistance when exposed at hightemperatures to an oxidizing environment, as well as articles includingsuch steels.

These and other advantages will be apparent upon consideration of thefollowing description of certain embodiments.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

Embodiments of the present invention will be understood by reference tothe following figures, wherein:

FIG. 1 is a schematic depiction of elements of a portion of a PSOFCstack.

FIG. 2 is a photograph of coupons of AL 453™ stainless steel havingmill, ground, or electropolished surfaces after 500 hours exposure at750° C. (1382° F.) in air.

FIG. 3 is a photograph of coupons of AL 453™ stainless steel havingmill, ground, or electropolished surfaces after 500 hours exposure at850° C. (1562° F.) in air.

FIG. 4 is a plot of specific weight change (mg/cm²) over time forsamples of AL 453™ stainless steel having electropolished surfacesexposed at 750° C. (1382° F.) and 850° C. (1562° F.) in air.

FIG. 5 is a graphical depiction of specific weight change (mg/cm²) forsamples of AL 453™ stainless steel having mill, ground, orelectropolished surfaces after 500 hours exposure at 750° C. (1382° F.)and 850° C. (1562° F.) in air.

FIG. 6 is an Arrhenius plot of the oxidation performance ofelectropolished AL 453™ stainless steel compared to standard AL 453™stainless steel and generic heat-resistant alloys that rely on theformation of chromium and aluminum oxide for oxidation resistance.

FIG. 7 is a plot of specific weight change over time for samples of AL453™ stainless steel prepared with several different surfaces exposed at800° C. (1472° F.) in air.

FIG. 8 is a parabolic plot of specific weight change over the squareroot of time for samples of AL 453™ stainless steel prepared withseveral different surfaces exposed at 800° C. (1472° F.) in air.

FIG. 9 is a plot of specific weight change over time for samples ofelectropolished AL 453™ stainless steel and several other heat-resistantstainless steel and nickel-base alloys exposed at 800° C. (1472° F.) inair.

FIG. 10 is a plot of specific weight change over time for severalelectropolished ferritic stainless steel samples including varyinglevels of chromium exposed at 800° C. (1472° F.) in air.

FIG. 11 is a plot of specific weight change over time for severalelectropolished ferritic stainless steel samples including varyinglevels of aluminum exposed at 800° C. (1472° F.) in air.

FIG. 12 is a plot of specific weight change over time for severalelectropolished ferritic stainless steel samples including varyinglevels of rare earth elements exposed at 800° C. (1472° F.) in air.

FIG. 13 is a graphical depiction of specific weight change results forseveral electropolished ferritic stainless steels samples includingvarying levels of alloying additions after 250 hours at 800° C. (1472°F.) in air.

DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS

As discussed above, ferritic stainless steels have been considered aspossible cost-effective replacement materials for SOFC interconnects.However, the gaseous reactants flowing on both sides of an interconnectare oxidizing to iron-chromium ferritic stainless steels. An oxidizedinterconnect is a less efficient electrical current conductor, and theefficiency of the fuel cell stack as a whole decreases over time as theoxide layers on interconnects within the fuel cell increase inthickness. The inherent limitations of current generation metallicinterconnects has limited available PSOFC designs to relativelyinefficient, low temperature operation (approximately 700° C. (1292°F.)) in order to prevent excessive oxidation on the interconnectsurfaces.

One ferritic stainless steel previously considered for use as SOFCinterconnect material is AL 453™ alloy, which is a ferritic stainlesssteel including rare earth metals (REMs) and having a nominalcomposition as shown in Table 1 above. REM in the form of mischmetal isadded during production of AL 453™ alloy. Mischmetal is an availablecommercial form of mixed REMs and can be obtained with differentcompositions having known concentrations of the REMs cerium, lanthanumand praseodymium. For example, a common mischmetal form used insteelmaking is nominally 50Ce-30La-20Pr by weight. The general chemistryof AL 453™ alloy includes, in weight percentages, nominally22Cr-0.6Al-0.06 (Ce+La), along with about 0.3 weight percent each ofsilicon, nickel and manganese, and balance iron and incidentalimpurities (such as about 250 ppmw (parts-per-million, by weight) carbonand 300 ppmw nitrogen).

As is known in the art, REM addition in a chromium-containing alloy suchas AL 453™ alloy should result in the formation of an adherent,slow-growing chromium oxide scale at high temperatures. However, it hasbeen determined that the high temperature oxidation resistance ofconventional AL 453™ alloy is generally inferior to that ofhigher-chromium commercially available ferritic stainless steels.

It is believed that unmodified commercially available ferritic stainlesssteels do not have suitable environmental resistance for use asinterconnects in SOFCs. As described in the present disclosure, however,it has unexpectedly been determined that modifying all or a portion ofone or more surfaces of AL 453™ alloy and ferritic stainless steelalloys having similar compositions can significantly increase theoxidation resistance of the modified areas. For example, the followingdisclosure shows that electrochemically modifying a surface of an AL453™ alloy decreased the oxidation rate of the surface by several ordersof magnitude relative to the same alloy prepared with a conventional 2BAsurface (a standard commercial finish provided by cold rolling withsmooth rolls and then annealing in a reducing dry hydrogen atmosphere)when exposed to air and temperatures typical of internal operatingconditions of SOFCs.

As used herein, “electrochemically modifying” a surface or surfaceregion of an alloy or an article means applying a current to the surfacein the presence of a chemical on the surface.

In the examples described below, the electrochemical modification wascarried out by application of electropolishing. As is known in the art,electropolishing is an electrochemical process wherein a portion of ametal or metal alloy is electrolytically removed in a highly ionicsolution by the action of an electric potential and current.Electropolishing is conventionally used to remove a thin layer ofmaterial from the surface of a metallic article, such as a part orcomponent, and to thereby reduce the surface roughness of the articleand improve surface finish. A typical conventional electropolishingapparatus generally comprises a bath including an electropolishingsolution (typically a mixture of phosphoric and sulfuric acids) intowhich the workpiece is placed for processing. The solution acts as theelectrolyte and carries metal ions from an anode to a cathode. Theworkpiece serves as the anode, and the cathode is typically in the formof one or more metal structures of suitable composition shaped so as toprovide generally even current densities to the surface of the workpiece(anode). The workpiece and cathode, respectively, may be connected tothe positive and negative terminals of a rectifier. It is conventionallybelieved that when current is applied to the workpiece and cathode inthe bath, the character of the film of electropolishing solution on thesurface of the workpiece is modified, and the film becomes viscous andassumes the properties of an insulator or resistor. The greater thethickness of the viscous film, the greater the resistive or insulatingproperties of the film. Thus, considering a particular surface on theworkpiece, a relatively thin electrically insulating film coversworkpiece portions that protrude significantly from the workpiece, and arelatively thick insulating film covers workpiece portions that protrudefrom the workpiece to a lesser degree. The further a portion of theworkpiece projects into the viscous insulating film, the thinner theinsulating film and the more charge received by the portion from thecathode. In this way, surface irregularities that protrude to a greaterextent receive proportionally greater current from the cathode anddissolve more quickly than surface irregularities that protrude to alesser degree. This has the effect of reducing surface irregularitiesand producing an improved surface finish.

As is known in the art, the electropolishing process may be carried outin a number of ways. For example, in a mill setting, electropolishingmay be conducted on coils of strip material or on finished pieces. On asmall, experimental scale, one electropolishing technique that has beenemployed for iron-chromium stainless steels includes immersing samplesof alloy in an electrolyte contained within a shallow glass dish. Anexample of a typical electrolyte used in the small-scale process is asolution of 25% sulfuric acid—47% phosphoric acid—28% glycolic acid (allby volume), which is maintained at a temperature of approximately 170°F. The samples immersed in the electrolyte are connected to apotentiostat via electrically conductive leads, and a current ofapproximately 1 amp/inch² is applied. In one particular process, alloysamples may be electropolished in this way for approximately 20 minutesand are flipped every 5 minutes. The alloy samples also may bepre-treated by grinding to a smooth surface using abrasive papers andthen cleaning/degreasing.

Nothing herein concerning particular electropolishing techniques isintended to limit the present disclosure or the scope of the appendedclaims in any way Those of ordinary skill, upon considering the presentdisclosure, may readily adapt known electropolishing techniques toelectrochemically modify surfaces of ferritic stainless steels havingthe compositions described herein to provide modified surfaces havingthe improved oxidation resistance properties discovered by the presentinventor.

It is known to electrochemically modify the surfaces of certainaustenitic stainless steels. For example, it is known to electropolishcertain austenitic stainless steels used in medical and pharmaceuticalapplications to provide surfaces that are clean and generally free ofcrevices. However, it is not generally known to electropolish orotherwise electrochemically modify the surfaces of ferritic stainlesssteels, and it has not heretofore been considered useful toelectropolish ferritic stainless steels to improve their hightemperature oxidation resistance properties.

Results illustrating the unexpected observation that electropolishingsignificantly enhances oxidation resistance of certain ferriticstainless steels is set forth in the examples below. Based on thefollowing results it is believed that at least some aluminum and REMmust be present in the stainless steel to produce the improvement inoxidation resistance provided by electrochemical modification, since itwas found that reducing the content of these alloying additions in thesteel corresponds to increased oxidation. The concentration of chromiumbelieved necessary in the stainless steel was determined to be quitebroad—a ferritic stainless steel alloy must include at least 16 weightpercent chromium to be suitably heat-resistant, and no commercialwrought ferritic stainless steels currently exist with more than 26weight percent chromium.

Example 1

A coil of AL 453™ alloy was provided by the conventional process ofcasting the alloy to a slab or ingot, hot reducing to a band, coldrolling to finished gauge with intermediate stress relieving anneals,and a final anneal in hydrogen. Several 1″×2″ test coupons were preparedfrom the coil and processed by three different surface treatments. Eachcoupon had an initial thickness of 0.075″ and a standard 2BA finish, andwas degreased and had finished edges. This surface finish is generallyreferred to herein as a “mill” surface, and samples including thatsurface are referred to herein as “mill” samples. Several mill sampleswere further processed by grinding using 120 grit SiC paper to removenominally 0.005″ per side. Samples prepared in this way are referred toherein as “ground” samples. Several of the ground samples wereelectropolished in an electropolishing solution including, by volume,25% sulfuric acid—47% phosphoric acid—28% glycolic acid for 20 minutes(samples flipped every 5 minutes) at 1 amp/inch² at approximately 170°F. (about 77° C.) to provide several “electropolished” samples.

The three surface types were characterized using Auger electronmicroscopy prior to high temperature oxidation testing. The ground andelectropolished samples both exhibited extremely thin native oxides(about 30 Angstroms thick), while the mill surface oxide wasapproximately four times thicker (about 130 Angstroms thick). There wasa marked difference in surface oxide chemistry between the samples. Themill surface oxide was the only oxide containing significant levels ofaluminum. Aluminum has a high affinity for oxygen and will react withthe trace amount of residual oxygen in a hydrogen annealing furnace toform a thin alumina scale. The ground surface oxide was essentiallyrepresentative of the base metal composition and was due to theformation of a native oxide, which occurs for all chromium-bearingstainless steels in air. The oxide formed on the electropolished sampleswas enriched in chromium by approximately 60-70% with respect to thebase metal, e.g., to an absolute level of about 30 weight percent. Thealuminum content in the oxide scales formed at room temperature on boththe ground and electropolished surfaces was too low to be detected usingthe Auger analysis.

AL 453™ alloy coupons having surfaces in each of the mill, ground andelectropolished conditions were placed in aluminum oxide crucibles andexposed to still air for times ranging from 5-500 hours at 750° C.(1382° F.) and 850° C. (1562° F.). The samples were removed from theoven periodically and weighed to assess resistance to oxide scaling,resulting in an average thermal cycle time of approximately 50 hours.

FIGS. 2 and 3 depict coupons with the three surface treatments afterexposure for 500 hours at 750° C. (1382° F.) (FIG. 2) and for 500 hoursat 850° C. (1562° F.) (FIG. 3). Both the mill and ground samples formedthe characteristic charcoal-grey adherent oxide scale generally observedfor stainless steels. The electropolished samples, however, formed atransparent golden oxide film through which the original metal surfacewas visible. This indicates that the oxide on the electropolishedsamples is extremely thin despite the long exposure time, and wassubstantially thinner than the oxide scale formed on the mill and groundsurfaces.

Oxidation data derived from the individual weight measurements of theelectropolished samples is shown in FIG. 4, which plots specific weightchange in mg/cm² versus time at 750° C. (1382° F.) and 850° C. (1562°F.), and wherein the measurements are identified as data points #1. FIG.5 graphically depicts specific weight change in (mg/cm²) after 500 hoursat temperature for the mill, ground and electropolished samples. Thedata indicates that the mill and ground surfaces oxidized atsubstantially the same rate, while the electropolished samples gainedsignificantly less weight than the other samples during the exposureperiod. The significance of the difference between the oxidationperformance of the samples is more evident when the data are expressedas parabolic rate constants. The parabolic rate constant distills anentire oxidation weight change curve into a single number, k_(p). Whenexpressed on an Arrhenius plot of the logarithm of the parabolic rateconstant versus inverse temperature, a unit difference in log k_(p)translates to a significant reduction in the rate of oxidation (forexample, a 2-point reduction in k_(p) corresponds to about 10× reductionin specific weight change over time). Based on the log k_(p) valuesshown in the following Table 2, the rate of oxidation of theelectropolished samples was several orders of magnitude lower than thatof the mechanically finished mill and ground surfaces, with acorresponding reduction in final specific weight change of about anorder of magnitude. When plotted versus the available rate constantdata, as shown in FIG. 6, the rate curve for electropolished AL 453™alloy was found to be greater than that of alumina, but considerablyless than that of normal chromia formers or mill-finished AL 453™ alloy.The activation energies, as represented by the slopes of the curves,also are considerably different and, therefore, are not representativeof REM-doped chromia or of alumina.

TABLE 2 Log k_(p) (g²/cm⁴h₎ Temperature Ground Electropolished ° C. ° F.Mill Surface Surface Surface 750 1382 −9.0 −9.1 −11.5 850 1562 −8.5 −8.5−10.5

A second set of electropolished samples was prepared to confirm theobservations above. A different test furnace was used, and theelectropolished samples were arranged in a different pattern within thefurnace. The results of periodic weight measurements of thoseelectropolished samples heated at 750° C. (1382° F.) and 850° C. (1562°F.) is plotted in FIG. 4 as data points #2 and are substantially thesame as the results derived from data points #1.

Scanning Auger microscope (SAM) analysis of the post-exposure films onthe electropolished samples heated at both 750° C. (1382° F.) and 850°C. (1562° F.) revealed that the oxide scale is of a single phase andcontains significant concentrations of aluminum, iron and chromium, asdetermined by standardless semi-quantitative analysis in the Auger.Although it appeared that electropolishing promotes the formation of analuminum-rich oxide scale, the underlying mechanism could not bedetermined from the SAM tests. Although the compositions of mill (brightannealed) and ground surfaces prior to oxidation testing were quitedifferent, they exhibited essentially the same oxidation kinetics athigh temperature, kinetics substantially different from the kinetics ofthe electropolished samples. Based on the observation that surfacegrinding did not improve oxidation resistance, it was determined thatthe improved oxidation performance of the samples having theelectrochemically modified surfaces was not solely attributable toremoval of surface defects.

Example 2

Additional testing on two coils from each of two different heats of AL453™ alloy was conducted to assess the repeatability of electropolishingas a means to significantly enhance high temperature corrosionresistance. The starting material was processed as standard AL 453™material, which is conventionally single-stage rolled from hot rolledband to 0.075″ and then bright annealed. Table 3 lists the quantities ofprepared test samples. Table 4 describes the processes used to treat thevarious sample types prior to testing.

TABLE 3 Pol- Electro- Heat Coil Mill Ground ished polished Repolished898042 03232C113 1 1 1 2 1 03232C123 1 1 1 2 1 898043 0323C143 1 1 1 2 103232C132 1 1 1 2 1 Total per condition 4 4 4 8 4

TABLE 4 Sample Designation Surface Processing Mill 2BA finish, asreceived, no further surface preparation. Ground All surfaces groundwith 120 grit SiC paper, removing 0.002″ (nominal) per side. PolishedAll surfaces ground with 120 grit SiC paper, removing 0.002″ (nominal)per side. All surfaces then polished to specular finish usingsuccessively finer grinding papers and lapping compounds, ending with 1micron diamond paste. Electropolished All surfaces ground with 120 gritSiC paper, removing 0.002″ (nominal) per side. All surfaces thenelectropolished as described above. Re-polished All surfaces ground with120 grit SiC paper, removing 0.002″ (nominal) per side. All surfacesthen electropolished as described above. All electropolished surfacesre-polished maintaining specular finish using 1 micron diamond paste.

As indicated in Table 4, testing was conducted on samples having twoadditional surface finishes, referred to as “polished” and“re-polished”. “Polished” refers to samples mechanically polished to aspecular surface finish using conventional metallographic techniques toapproximate the physical smoothness of an electropolished surface.“Re-polished” refers to an electropolished surface that was mechanicallypolished to remove material immediate to the electropolished surface ofthe sample and to maintain a specular finish. All 24 samples wereexposed for 250 hours at 800° C. (1472° F.) in air in groups of sixsamples using three different furnaces, for a total of four test runs.

The test results indicated that the improvement in oxidation resistanceachieved in Example 1 above through electropolishing is fullyrepeatable. Mechanically grinding or polishing the surface of the AL453™ samples resulted in modest improvement in oxidation resistance overthe standard mill (bright annealed) surface. Electropolished samples,however, exhibited an order of magnitude reduction in oxidation weightchange. The results are graphically depicted in FIG. 7 (average specificweight change in sample type as a function of time) and in the parabolicplot of FIG. 8 (average specific weight change in sample type as afunction of the square root of time).

The oxidation resistance of electropolished AL 453™ alloy at 800° C.).(1472° also was compared with the oxidation resistance of several commonheat-resistant stainless steels and nickel-base alloys, all of whichprincipally rely on the formation of chromium oxide for resistance tohigh temperature oxidation. Because actual data at 800° C. (1472° F.)was not available for most of those alloys, data obtained at 704° C.(1300° F.), 760° C. (1400° F.), 816° C. (1500° F.) and 871° C. (1500°F.) were interpolated to yield the expected sample specific weightchange curves at the desired temperature. The results forelectropolished AL 453™ alloy are plotted alongside these curves in FIG.9. The best chromium oxide formers (E-BRITE® alloy, Type 309S alloy andAL 600™ alloy) gain about ten times as much weight as electropolished AL453™ alloy after 250 hours at 800° C. (1472° F.).

The foregoing tests results indicate that electropolishing or otherwiseelectrochemically modifying one or more surfaces of AL 453™ alloy oralloys of similar composition substantially improves high temperatureoxidation resistance of the modified surfaces, and that the phenomenonis repeatable and, thus, may be applied commercially. The reduction inoxidation rate appears to be unique to a surface having a structureproduced by electrochemical modification, such as by electropolishing;mechanical polishing to a specular finish does not produce like results,and lightly polishing an electropolished surface to thereby remove themodified surface layer reverses the improvement in oxidation resistance.

The high temperature oxidation resistance exhibited by theelectropolished material makes the material suitable for use in hightemperature applications, such as interconnect material for SOFCs. AreaSpecific Resistance (ASR) describes the performance of a fuel cellinterconnect and how it degrades over time as the surface oxide scalethickens and resists the flow of electricity to a greater degree. Recentwork indicates that conventional AL 453™ alloy and E-BRITE® alloy, alongwith certain other chromium-rich ferritic stainless steels, reach ASRvalues that are unacceptably high for long-term SOFC operation becausethe oxide scale formed on these materials grows too rapidly and impedescurrent flow between the individual cells in the fuel cell stack. Moreoxidation-resistant aluminum-bearing ferritic stainless steels formthinner alumina surface scales, but the intrinsic electrical resistivityof aluminum oxide also results in an unacceptably high ASR value overtime. Further structural characterization of the thin aluminum-richoxides formed on electropolished AL 453™ alloy at high temperatures,discussed in Example 3 below, confirmed that the oxides include asignificant level of iron and chromium, along with aluminum, suggestingthat the oxide formed on electropolished AL 453™ alloy should be moreelectrically conductive in the absolute sense than aluminum oxide. This,combined with the decrease in thickness due to low rate of oxidation,should result in better performance, as manifested by a slower rate ofASR increase. The presence of aluminum and iron should also reduce thetendency of pure chromium oxide to evaporate at high temperatures in thepresence of air and water vapor. This is a major cause of hightemperature attack in PSOFCs, as the volatile chromia deposits elsewherein the cell and degrades performance by damaging components such as theceramic cathode.

Example 3

Glancing incidence X-ray diffraction techniques were used tocharacterize the nature of the oxide film formed on embodiments of theelectrochemically modified ferritic stainless steels of the presentdisclosure. The oxidation of conventional bright annealed AL 453™ alloyoccurs in a manner typical for a heat-resistant stainless steelcontaining more than about 16% chromium by weight. Al₂O₃ isthermodynamically stable and should form in direct contact with thesurface of the alloy. A minimum of about 3 weight percent aluminum,however, is needed to ensure rapid enough diffusion to the metal/oxideinterface to sustain the growth of a continuous layer of alumina.Therefore, in conventional bright annealed AL 453™ alloy, a chromiumoxide (Cr₂O₃) layer forms in direct contact with the alloy surface,along with significant amounts of iron and spinel oxides. Aluminum oxideparticles form in the alloy adjacent the scale/alloy interface. Suchbehavior is consistent with the established theory of alloy oxidationfirst proposed by Carl Wagner in the 1950's. See C. Wagner, Z.Electrochem., 63, p. 772 (1959).

A Phillips X′Pert diffractometer was used to scan a sample ofelectropolished AL 453™ alloy (heat #898042, coil #03232C123A), whichhad been exposed at 800° C. (1472° F.) for 250 hours. The diffractometerwas operated in glancing incidence mode, in which the incident beam isoblique to the surface at an angle omega (O), so as to obtain patternsnear the sample's surface. A monochromatic Cu K_(a) parallel X-raysource served as the incident beam. Diffraction patterns were obtainedat Ω values of 1 and 3 degrees, which ensured that along with thesurface film reflections, peaks from the ferritic stainless steelsubstrate were included in both patterns and were used as referencepoints for both location and intensity of other reflections (theintensity of the substrates peaks increases relative to that of thesurface film peaks as Ω increases). The scans were run from 10° to 90°2θ at a scan rate of approximately 0.02 degree/second. The maximumabsolute intensity was about 1,000 counts in the 1° Ω pattern, and about4,000 counts in the 3° Ω pattern. The Search-Match routine in thePhillips X′Pert software suite was used to provide a list of potentialmatching patterns for phase identification.

Based on diffractometry results, the oxide film on the electropolishedAL 453™ sample was of a single phase with a hematite structure (M₂O₃).The experimentally determined diffraction pattern is representative of asingle phase. Measured lattice parameters were a_(o) in the range of4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o) in the range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å. Thediffractometry results suggest nominal lattice parameters for the oxidefilm are a_(o)=4.98 Å and c_(o)=13.57 Å. The nominal lattice parametersfor the oxide film formed on the electropolished AL 453™ sample arelisted in Table 5, along with representative lattice parameters forFe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃. Measured lattice parameters of theoxide film on the electropolished sample are bracketed by patterns forFe₂O₃ (hematite, larger lattice parameters), alpha Cr₂O₃ (eskolaite,smaller lattice parameters) and various phases of hematite with chromiumsubstituted for iron. The reference pattern for alpha Al₂O₃ (corundum,also a member of the hematite isostructural group) does not match theexperimentally determined diffraction pattern for electropolished AL453™ alloy as alpha Al₂O₃ exhibits significantly smaller latticeparameters.

Accordingly, measurements of interplanar spacing indicate that the phaseconstituting the aluminum-rich oxide film has lattice parametersintermediate that of Cr₂O₃ and Fe₂O₃, and significantly less than thatexhibited by Al₂O₃. Therefore, while the oxide film formed on theelectrochemically modified samples was rich in aluminum, it is nottypical of alpha aluminum. Thus, the aluminum-rich oxide layer formed onthe electropolished samples was not found to consist solely of highlyelectrically resistive alpha Al₂O₃.

TABLE 5 a_(o) (Å) c_(o) (Å) Source α-Al₂O₃ 4.758 12.991 JCPDS 10-173Cr₂O₃ 4.954 13.584 JCPDS 6-0504 Surface oxide 4.98 13.57 Experimentalformed on measurement experimental samples Fe₂O₃ 5.356 13.7489 JCPDS33-664

Example 4

The effect on high temperature oxidation performance of varying levelsof aluminum, chromium and REM, specifically cerium and lanthanum, addedas mischmetal was evaluated. Five 50 lb. VIM heats were melted to thechemistries shown in Table 6 and were processed to 0.075″ thick foroxidation testing. Samples from each heat were tested in the pickledcondition as a baseline, along with samples having surfaces ground to a120 grit finish and with surfaces electrochemically modified byelectropolishing to a mirror finish. All samples were exposed for 250hours at 800° C. (1472° F.) using duplicate samples per surfacecondition. Each of the pickled and ground samples exhibited oxidationresistance comparable or slightly better than typical 2BA AL 453™material.

TABLE 6 Composition (weight percent) Heat Number Chromium AluminumCerium + Lanthanum RV1908 17.8 0.78 0.062 RV1909 23.3 0.69 0.026 RV191221.4 0.68 0.002 RV1917 21.6 0.32 0.049 RV1929 21.8 0.95 0.063 AL 453(nominal) 22 0.78 0.05

Varying the chromium content relative to the nominal content in AL 453™alloy had only a minor impact on the weight gain of electropolishedsamples. As shown in FIG. 10, the electropolished samples oflow-chromium heat RV1908 (17.8%) performed better than electropolishedsamples of high-chromium heat RV1909 (23.3%), although the high-chromiumheat contained a lower level of REM. Electropolished samples from bothof heats RV1908 and RV1909 exhibited oxidation performance comparable tothat of electropolished standard AL 453™ alloy. Ferritic stainlesssteels including lower chromium contents are generally less costly, moreeasily manufactured, and more stable in that they are less likely todevelop sigma or other brittle phases. Also, the results herein indicatethat electropolishing is slightly more effective in enhancing oxidationresistance when applied to lower chromium alloys. On the other hand,higher chromium levels reduce the CTE, which may improve the performanceof the alloys as interconnect materials in SOFCs. Given theseobservations, and in view of cost and metallurgical concerns, chromiumpreferably is present in the ferritic stainless steels of the presentdisclosure in the range of about 16 up to less than about 30 weightpercent, and is more preferably in the range of 16 up to 19 weightpercent.

Varying the aluminum content was found to have a significant effect onthe oxidative weight gain of the samples having surfaces that wereelectrochemically modified by electropolishing. As shown in FIG. 11,electropolished samples of low-aluminum heat RV1917 (0.32%) performedpoorly relative to both electropolished standard AL 453™ alloy andelectropolished samples of high-aluminum heat RV1929 (0.95%), but stillexhibited a two-fold weight gain reduction relative to samples of AL453™ alloy with a standard mill finish. On the other hand, the additionof increasing levels of aluminum risk the formation of alumina, whichcould negatively affect the electrical resistance of the material if itis to be applied for SOFC interconnect applications. Based on theseresults, aluminum preferably is present in the ferritic stainless steelsof the present disclosure in an amount of at least 0.2 weight percent,and more preferably within the range of about 0.2 weight percent up toabout 1.0 weight percent.

As shown in FIG. 12, eliminating REM had a very significant effect onoxidation resistance. The oxidation performance of REM-free heat RV1912(residual levels of 0.02% cerium+lanthanum) showed that the beneficialeffect of the electrochemical surface modification produced byelectropolishing was substantially completely eliminated in a REM-freeversion of the AL 453™ alloy. On the other hand, the addition of highlevels of REM may overdope the alloy, leading to excessive weight gaindue to oxidation of REM-rich particles. Accordingly, the total REMcontent in the ferritic stainless steels of the present disclosurepreferably is greater than 0.2 weight percent up to about 1.0 weightpercent. Although mischmetal, which contains significant levels ofcerium and lanthanum, was used in the examples herein, it is believedthat either REM may be used alone, and that other REMs may be used inplace of or in addition to cerium and/or lanthanum. For example, yttriumis generally considered to be the most effective REM, although it issignificantly expensive. Hafnium also is generally considered aneffective REM, but is less available than mischmetal. Other REMs arequite difficult to obtain in commercial quantities.

FIG. 13 summarizes the results of the oxidation testing. The addition ofREM, notably cerium and lanthanum, appears to be required to provide theobserved reduction in oxidative weight gain in the electropolishedmaterial. The electropolishing effect also appears to be sensitive toaluminum content, with a diminished effect noted at an aluminum level of0.32%. It is believed that increasing the aluminum content, such as inthe range of up to 1.0% or greater, may provide additional reduction inweight change. Within the bounds of the experiments performed, theelectrochemical surface modification produced by electropolishing doesnot appear to be particularly sensitive to varying chromium content.Considering the test results, a preferred ferritic stainless steelcomposition that would benefit from an electrochemical surfacemodification such as that produced by electropolishing includes, inweight percentages, about 18% to about 22% chromium, about 0.4% to about0.8% aluminum and about 0.02% to about 0.2% REM. Another preferredferritic stainless steel that would benefit from the electrochemicalsurface modification includes, in weight percentages, about 18%chromium, about 0.8% aluminum and about 0.3% REM, and may provide amaterial particularly suitable for SOFC interconnects. In addition tochromium, aluminum and REM, ferritic stainless steels that may beadvantageously processed by the methods described in the presentdisclosure may include other alloying additions as are known in the art.For example, and without intending to limit the scope of the presentdisclosure in any way, certain embodiments of the ferritic stainlesssteel may include, in weight percentages, up to 3 nickel, up to 3manganese, up to 0.7 silicon, up to 0.07 nitrogen, up to 0.07 carbon andup to 0.5 titanium.

In light of the high temperature oxidation resistance of ferriticstainless steels processed according to the present disclosure, suchsteels may be advantageously applied as interconnects for fuel cells,including SOFCs and PSOFCs. Moreover, examples of additional articles ofmanufacture that may be advantageously constructed to include theferritic stainless steels described herein include apparatus subjectedto high temperature and relatively oxidizing environments, such ashigh-temperature manufacturing equipment, high-temperature handlingequipment, calcining equipment, glass making equipment, glass handlingequipment and heat exchanger components. In addition, ferritic stainlesssteel articles such as, for example, plate, sheet, strip, foil and bar,that are intended for fabrication into articles of manufacture also maybe processed using the methods described herein. It will be understoodthat the foregoing articles are merely non-exhaustive examples ofarticles that may include the ferritic stainless steels as descriedherein and that other such articles may be apparent to those havingordinary skill after having considered the present disclosure. Also,although the present disclosure includes examples whereinelectropolishing is used to electrochemically modify the surface of aferritic stainless steel, it will be understood that the presentdisclosure is not so limited and also encompasses other means ofelectrochemically modifying metallic surfaces that provide surfaces onthe treated ferritic stainless steels exhibiting similar improvement inhigh temperature oxidation resistance.

It will be understood that the present description illustrates thoseaspects of the invention relevant to a clear understanding of theinvention. Certain aspects of the invention that would be apparent tothose of ordinary skill in the art and that, therefore, would notfacilitate a better understanding of the invention have not beenpresented in order to simplify the present description. Althoughembodiments of the present invention have been described, one ofordinary skill in the art will, upon considering the foregoingdescription, recognize that many modifications and variations of theinvention may be employed. All such variations and modifications of theinvention are intended to be covered by the foregoing description andthe following claims.

What is claimed is:
 1. A ferritic stainless steel comprising aluminum,at least one rare earth metal and 16 to less than 30 weight percentchromium, wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than0.02 weight percent, the ferritic stainless steel further comprising atleast one modified surface, wherein when subjected to an oxidizingatmosphere at high temperature, the at least one modified surfacedevelops an electrically conductive, aluminum-rich, oxidation resistantoxide scale comprising chromium and iron and a having a hematitestructure differing from Fe₂O₃, alpha Cr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃.
 2. Theferritic stainless steel of claim 1, wherein lattice parameters a_(o)and c_(o) of the oxide scale differ from a_(o) and c_(o) of Fe₂O₃, alphaCr₂O₃ and alpha Al₂O₃.
 3. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 1,wherein the at least one modified surface develops the oxide scale whenheated in an oxidizing atmosphere at a temperature in the range of 750°C. to 850° C.
 4. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 1, wherein the atleast one modified surface develops the oxide scale when heated in anoxidizing atmosphere for at least 100 hours at a temperature in therange of 750° C. to 850° C.
 5. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 1,wherein the oxide scale is characterized by a_(o) in the range of 4.95to 5.04 Å and c_(o) in the range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å.
 6. The ferriticstainless steel of claim 1, wherein the oxide scale is characterized bynominal lattice parameters a_(o)=4.98 Å and c_(o)=13.57 Å.
 7. Theferritic stainless steel of claim 1, wherein the at least one modifiedsurface comprises at least one electrochemically modified surface. 8.The ferritic stainless steel of claim 7, wherein the at least oneelectrochemically modified surface comprises at least oneelectropolished surface.
 9. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 8,wherein the at least one electropolished surface develops the oxidescale when heated in an oxidizing atmosphere for at least 100 hours at atemperature in the range of 750° C. to 850° C., and wherein the oxidescale is characterized by a_(o) in the range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o)in the range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å.
 10. The ferritic stainless steel ofclaim 9, wherein the oxide scale is characterized by nominal latticeparameters a_(o)=4.98 Å and c_(o)=13.57 Å.
 11. A ferritic stainlesssteel comprising aluminum, at least one rare earth metal and 16 to lessthan 30 weight percent chromium, wherein the total weight of rare earthmetals is greater than 0.02 weight percent, and wherein the ferriticstainless steel further comprises at least one electrochemicallymodified surface.
 12. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 11, whereinthe at least one electrochemically modified surface is at least oneelectropolished surface.
 13. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 12,wherein the at least one electropolished surface develops analuminum-rich oxide scale including iron and chromium and having ahematite structure, a_(o) in the range of 4.95 to 5.04 Å and c_(o) inthe range of 13.58 to 13.75 Å when heated for at least 100 hours at 750°C. to 850° C. in an oxidizing atmosphere.
 14. The ferritic stainlesssteel of claim 12, wherein the oxide scale is characterized by nominallattice parameters a_(o)=4.98 Å and c_(o)=13.57 Å.
 15. The ferriticstainless steel of claim 11, comprising 16 up to 19 weight percentchromium.
 16. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 11, comprising atleast 0.2 weight percent aluminum.
 17. The ferritic stainless steel ofclaim 11, comprising 0.2 up to 1.0 weight percent aluminum.
 18. Theferritic stainless steel of claim 11, wherein the total weight of rareearth metals in the ferritic stainless steel is greater than 0.02 up to1.0 weight percent.
 19. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 11,wherein the ferritic stainless steel comprises at least one rare earthmetal selected from cerium, lanthanum, yttrium and hafnium.
 20. Theferritic stainless steel of claim 11, wherein the total weight of rareearth metals in the ferritic stainless steel is greater than 0.02 up to1.0 weight percent.
 21. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 11comprising, in weight percent, 18 up to 22 chromium, 0.4 to 0.8 aluminumand 0.02 to 0.2 rare earth metals.
 22. The ferritic stainless steel ofclaim 11, further comprising, in weight percent, up to 3 nickel, up to 3manganese, up to 0.7 silicon, up to 0.07 nitrogen, up to 0.07 carbon andup to 0.5 titanium.
 23. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 11,comprising, in weight percentages, about 22 chromium and about 0.6aluminum, cerium and lanthanum, wherein the sum of the weights of ceriumand lanthanum is up to about 0.10.
 24. The ferritic stainless steel ofclaim 11, comprising 16 to less than 30 weight percent chromium, atleast 0.2 weight percent aluminum, and at least one rare earth metal,wherein the total weight of rare earth metals is greater than 0.02 up to1.0 weight percent.
 25. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 11,wherein the at least one electrochemically modified surface exhibitsimproved resistance to oxidation when subjected to atmosphere andtemperature conditions characteristic of the operating conditions in asolid oxide fuel cell.
 26. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 12,wherein the at least one electropolished surface has oxidationresistance in air at about 750° C. characterized by log k_(p) less than−9.1 g²/cm⁴ h.
 27. The ferritic stainless steel of claim 12, wherein theat least one electropolished surface has oxidation resistance in air atabout 850° C. characterized by log k_(p) less than −8.5 g²/cm⁴ h.
 28. Anarticle of manufacture comprising the ferritic stainless steel ofclaim
 1. 29. The article of manufacture of claim 28, wherein the articleof manufacture is selected from a fuel cell, a solid oxide fuel cell, aplanar solid oxide fuel cell, a fuel cell interconnect, ahigh-temperature manufacturing apparatus, a high-temperature handlingapparatus, a calcining apparatus, a glass making apparatus, a glasshandling apparatus and a heat exchanger component.
 30. An article ofmanufacture comprising the ferritic stainless steel of claim
 11. 31. Thearticle of manufacture of claim 30, wherein the article of manufactureis selected from a fuel cell, a solid oxide fuel cell, a planar solidoxide fuel cell, a fuel cell interconnect, a high-temperaturemanufacturing apparatus, a high-temperature handling apparatus, acalcining apparatus, a glass making apparatus, a glass handlingapparatus and a heat exchanger component.